Outlining serves Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

4 Ways You Can Use Your Holiday Break to Gear up for the New Year

4 Ways You Can Use Your Holiday Break to Gear up for the New Year Once you’ve settled down from allâ theâ excitementâ of the Christmas season, it’s imperative to look towards the New Year and have an arrangement. It very well may be temping to stall and disregard your working environment obligations, yet remaining on target even despite a loosening up occasion is significant.  Instead, consider utilizing personal time over the occasion break this year to set yourself up for an extraordinary beginning to 2017. Here are four different ways to set yourself up for a gainful 2017 and stretch out beyond the inescapable New Year’s resolutions.1. Think about what you’ve done in 2016Take a gander at your previous year. You have the advantage of doing this without the everyday interruptions of messages, gatherings, and solicitations from partners, so exploit an opportunity to stop and survey. What worked for you in the previous year? Did you start new propensities that filled your heart with joy simpler? Did you cut out int erruptions? Start another job?On the other side, speak the truth about what didn’t go so well. On the off chance that you had a feeling that you didn’t have sufficient opportunity to complete everything, what might you be able to have done to smooth out your schedule?2. Consider your objectives for 2017.Once you get an image of how your year went and what you may have the option to do to improve one year from now, set some sensible objectives. Make an effort not to fall into the New Year’s goals trap, where we set objectives dependent on a sort of glorified variant of ourselves. Certainly, hopefully you will make a huge difference on the very first moment no low quality nourishment, heading out to the rec center each day, never checking Facebook at work, or other commendable goals. Human instinct for the most part has different plans, however, and we regularly slip directly once again into our past ways by, gracious, February.For your expert objectives, ensure y ou’re remaining down to earth and conceivable. On the off chance that you think you’d like to change employments, give yourself a course of events (complete with feasible strides) consistently. For example:February: Update your resume.March: Research potential organizations and enroll a companion to go through training interviews with you.April: Start going after position openings.Regardless of whether you need to leave your present place of employment, think about the master plan: what might you want to be taking a shot at? In the event that there’s a fantasy venture you have inside your current job, or one that would be a smidgen of a stretch for you, begin mapping it out. Make a layout of what might be included, and have an arrangement prepared to talk about it with your administrator after the holidays.Whatever your objectives are, it’s essential to accomplish your prep work. The SMART (Specific, Measurable, Actionable, Realistic, and Timely) rule is extremely useful for building objectives, removing unworkable ones, and sparing yourself some grief.3. Get up to speed with incomplete business.Was there something you needed to scratch off your plan for the day before you surged out the entryway for the occasion? Now’s your opportunity to try it without calls, gatherings, or other workday errands hindering you. I know it’s your time away from the workplace, however on the off chance that you take two hours currently to set yourself up for the arrival to work, think how quiet you’ll feel one week from now while every other person is scrambling to return to work.4. Connect with your network.The new year gives you a simple â€Å"in† to contact somebody you haven’t conversed with in some time. Regardless of whether you don’t have huge numbers of your expert contacts on your yearly Christmas card list, a â€Å"Happy New Year!† note is an extraordinary chance to reconnect for 2017.Even on the off chance that you do each of the four of these things, you’ll still possess a lot of energy for occasion delight and unwinding with loved ones. Consider it an interest in yourself for the following year†¦ and you don’t even need to head out to the exercise center or surrender that unfortunate propensity to do it.

Applied Game Theory For Your Day-To-Day Business Operations

Applied Game Theory For Your Day-To-Day Business Operations Game theory has been one of those disciplines that have reached phenomenal status because it has introduced concepts and methodologies that are deemed by many to be “game-changers” (no pun intended). It first came about in the 1900s, and has been expounded on and progressed since then. However, there are still some questions and doubts on its applicability, especially in the real world and in real-life situations, particularly in daily business operations. © Shutterstock.com | ImageFlowIn this article, we will start with the general definition of 1) the game theory, and continue then with 2) the game theory in day-to-day business.THE GAME THEORYBut first, let us discuss what Game Theory is all about. It is essentially a discipline or a method of strategic thinking where the players will have to make decisions by looking from different perspectives, basically putting themselves in the shoes of the other players and anticipating their possible actions and reactions. The results of playing out these scenarios will be used to make decisions or choices.When used in the context of business, Game Theory is most often used by business managers to figure out what their collaborators and competitors are thinking or planning. It has become a very powerful tool for predicting the outcomes or results of interactions or transactions among a group of players or competitors, where the action of one will have direct effects or impact on the others, an d the others will react according to those actions.What are the elements that compose Game Theory? There are three basic components at play here:A set of players who are involved. In business, these often pertain to individual business managers and firms or companies.A set of strategies which are available for use by the players at specific points during the game. This also encompasses the rules of the game, which are set in order to specify the sequence of all possible moves and actions. The information that are instrumental in strategizing are also covered here.The outcomes for each possible set of strategies or actions, and the expected payoffs based on these outcomes. These payoffs are assumed to be known by all the parties or participating players.Strategizing through the use of Game Theory requires several assumptions to be made. These assumptions are not fool-proof, however, since there are many arguments that could be made against them.Assumption #1: All the players act and think rationally, making choices and performing actions that are in their self-interest. The weakness of this assumption lies on the fact that human nature does not often permit rational thinking, and humans tend to make decisions for reasons other than their own interests.Assumption #2: All the players act strategically, while taking into consideration the responses of their competitors to their actions. This is also not always the case, because there are other drivers to players’ decisions, not necessarily the actions of others. In fact, many business managers even do not make decisions within the strategic context.Assumption #3: The effectiveness of Game Theory is fully realized when all the players are fully aware of, and understand clearly, the payoffs â€" both the negative and positive ones â€" of their choices or actions. It is a fact that most players make decisions even without having all the information. Many even do not care to know the full story behind some actions or responses before deciding on a specific course of action themselves.Game Theory can also be performed in two ways: simultaneous games, where the players make their moves or actions at the same time, without waiting for information on what the other players have chosen or acted upon, and sequential games, where the moves of the players will depend on, and in response to, the previous action or choice of another player.THE GAME THEORY IN DAY-TO-DAY BUSINESSAnyone that plays a key role in high-level and strategic decision-making in an organization should definitely consider learning about, and applying, the Game Theory. They include, but are not limited to, executives, directors, and senior managers.The applicability of Game Theory may be in question by some pundits, but there is no denying the fact that even large and established businesses have openly discussed using Game Theory for their key strategic business decisions.The most common situations where Game Theory becomes most usef ul include:It is especially useful when it comes to analyzing first price sealed bid auctions. A first-price sealed bid auction is a type of auction where the bidders submit their bids â€" sealed and secured â€" and the highest bidder wins. What is analyzed are the behaviors of the bidders, and the factors that come into play when they make the decisions while preparing their bids. In this case, the bids are independent of each other, and are made by the bidders simultaneously.Bargaining activities. Game theory also comes into play when bargaining takes place between or among parties. Examples include negotiations between management and the workers’ union, as well as revenue-sharing negotiations.Product decisions. This is the quintessential area where businesses can “play games” or play out scenarios using the Game Theory. It is actually most frequently used by businesses in making decisions on whether to enter a market or to exit it. Businesses deciding whether to introduce a new product or not may also use a Game Theory.Transactions between Principal and Agent. Principal-Agent decisions can also apply the Game Theory when tackling compensation negotiations as well as incentives to suppliers and business partners.Supply Chain decisions. A huge bulk of the decisions made by businesses involves the supply chain, and some of the more common decisions made involve capacity management, make or buy, and build or outsource.Importance of Applying Game Theory in BusinessMaking business decisions is a daily event for managers. They are always faced with decisions on what to produce, what to procure, and what to sell, followed by decisions on how much they should spend in producing or in procuring, and what price they should set when they sell. There are so many tools used to come up with decisions, and one of these tools is Game Theory.We can enumerate several reasons why business managers should consider using the Game Theory in its business operations.To reduce business risk. Simulations have been employed by business managers in their risk analysis methodologies. Applying game models is effective in determining equilibrium within the market. Risk analysis makes use of Game Theory in determining optimal price strategy, expected market shares, expected income and number of customers, while obtaining information about the company, the market, the competitors, and the technologies in use, among others.To obtain insights regarding the competition and the overall competitive landscape of the business and the industry. One of the best ways to be competitive is to know your competition. Using Game Theory is very effective in getting information on the various factors related to the competitiveness of the business. The core addresses the question “what are my rivals or opponents thinking?” They want to know what their competition’s next move is â€" their motivations, their strategies, their strengths and their weaknesses, and use all these information to change the game and increase the value of their own business proposition.To improve internal decision-making processes. By playing out business scenarios, companies become more confident in their decisions, and management is more inclined to have greater involvement in the internal decision-making processes.Business managers must beware, however, of how they use Game Theory. It is not a management tool that they can use as a substitute for experience in business. It is merely a tool, or a guide, for them to go about their tasks or roles as business managers.Game Theory applied in Pricing DecisionsThe pricing decisions of a company can be highly influenced by the pricing choices or decisions of rival companies. One popular example was the price-chopping decisions initiated by Intel and Advanced Micro Devices (AMD) on their desktop and mobile processors.Intel and AMD are considered to be competitors in a highly specialized niche, and both are in a tight race to gain a l arger share of the market. The first move was taken by Intel, who initiated a price slash on its desktop and mobile processors. AMD reacted by implementing a similar price cut, even if it meant potential losses or decrease in revenues.This price war resulted to both companies seeing significant increases in unit sales and shipments of their products â€" a sign of an increase in their market potential. However, their revenues saw a drop, and so did the profits.The concept of ‘Prisoner’s Dilemma’ is apparent in this example. Prisoner’s dilemma is best represented by a situation where two criminals, who are accomplices, are interrogated in two separate rooms. The interrogators are not in possession of sufficient evidence or information to make a conviction, so they have to find a way to facilitate a confession. They present each of the suspects with two choices: either defect, or confess to the crime and get a lighter punishment or jail sentence, or they could cooperate, or ref use to say anything, and suffer the punishment due them.The interrogators make it a point to inform both suspects that the other is fully aware of the deal and its connotations. Thus, each of them will make a decision without knowing what the other’s actions will be.If the two suspects decide to defect and make a confession, they will both get the full brunt of the punishment and be sentenced the standard jailtime. If, however, one suspect confesses and the other stays quiet, it is the latter who will get the jail sentence â€" often even longer â€" while the one who confessed gets off with a lighter sentence, or even walks away scot-free.In the AMD and Intel example, AMD reacted with a price slash of its own after Intel made the move first. But what followed was a series of price cuts that could only be described as a “repetition of interactions”. Both companies are aware of each other as long-time competitors, and that they will be playing the same game for a long time to com e. Thus, they have the choice on whether to cooperate with each other and kept their prices higher, or they could engage in mutual price-chopping actions.Game Theory applied in Supply Chain Design DecisionsMany assume that Game Theory applies only to getting the pulse of competitors. However, it can also apply to the relationship of companies with their supply chain partners. Supply chain management can be facilitated by Game Theory concepts.The game can be played in one of two ways. A non-cooperative game is where the players are unable to make binding commitments before making a choice or deciding what strategy to implement. On the other hand, making such commitments is possible in a cooperative game, which means that players can form coalitions and make side-payments.Let us say, for example, that there is only one wholesaler of Product A. All retailers will source their inventory from this single supplier. If there is more than one supplier, however, it becomes a different ball g ame altogether. There are now two suppliers competing for product availability. If the first supplier has unavailable stocks, or are unsatisfactory, the retailers can turn to the other supplier. The payoffs enjoyed by the two players will differ, dependent on several factors such as demand, price and customer satisfaction.Taking into account the Game Theory assumption that all players are acting on their self-interests, it is important to note that their individual choices, when taken as a whole, do not always mean that the supply chain is optimized, or that it is able to enjoy an optimal payoff. Consider the fact that there are multiple players, or companies; this means that the supply chain is decentralized. If you compare it to a centralized chain, with only one or two suppliers, there is a significant difference between the profits. Obviously, the profits in the decentralized supply chain will be lower than that of the centralized chain.Game Theory in Managing Shareholder ValueA performing company is able to provide value to its stakeholders and shareholders. In order for the company to perform well, top management â€" all the way down to the rank-and-file â€" are expected to pull their weight. It is a collective effort, as all are working for everybody, instead of one group focusing on its own compensation without care for the others.Game Theory has been applied in efforts to create compensation schemes that effectively align the interests of all stakeholders of the company: the managers and the workers (the agents), and the shareholders (the principals).It is a given that the shareholders do not have direct control over the actions of the managers and the workers of the company. They also cannot directly monitor them. That does not mean, however, that they are entirely helpless. By offering incentives, they can have a say â€" albeit indirectly â€" on how the managers and the workers should act. These are commonly seen in the relationships between real es tate agents and prospective property and home buyers, and that of franchisees and franchisors.Through Game Theory, we are able to get more than a glimpse of the interactions of agents and use the information obtained in making strategic decisions.Game Theory in Making Entry and Exit DecisionsEntrants to new markets are faced with many questions and dilemmas. This is a decision so huge that a significant amount of research, information-gathering and analysis is required.Say, for instance, that Company B is looking to enter a new market in a South American country. Currently, there is one similar firm â€" Company A â€" operating in that market. Company B’s decision-making process would consider the following:Will Company B make a profit once it enters the market? How will Company A react to the entry, and will the reaction affect the potential profitability?How much investment will entering the market require from Company A? Will Company B’s reaction affect the investment costs?Co mpany B will have to consider all the possible reactions of Company A. Company A can choose to welcome Company B, letting it get a share of the market it used to solely own. Or Company A can choose to start a price war with Company B, cutting its prices in order to maintain its stake on the market.Through Game Theory, Company A can decide whether it would be accommodating to Company B, or if it would be aggressive. Drawing a game tree using the information available in order to see what strategy would be most beneficial or have the bigger payoff.Granted, Game Theory might not be the best or most recommended analysis tool out there for businesses, but no one can deny its usefulness when it comes to day-to-day business operations. Business operations revolve around strategies and interactions â€" essentially a “game” â€" and this discipline tackles a game that involves a strategic interaction between players, with outcomes and payoffs waiting at the end.

The United States Of America - 1788 Words

I moved to United Sates of America when I was fourteen years old. It’s not my first time visit to America; I did visit many times before. I used to spend my Christmas break at my cousins place in Austin. During my 9th grade summer Holidays my parents decided to move me to America for my higher studies. It was just me who moved not my parents. I was kind of scared. I had to leave my childhood friends, and I have never been away from my parents. At the same time I was excited to live with my grandparents in America. Finally I moved to US with mixed emotions. I was here a month before school started. During that one month span, my cousins started to give tips on how to make friends in school, how to engage you in conversation and how to not be scared to talk in front of the class. They also gave me an idea of how the school setting is going to be, so that I won’t be surprised or shocked. With all the tips and suggestions my cousins gave, I was confident enough to start my first day of school in America. It was nice sunny day; I woke at 6:00 to get ready for school. I practiced to introduce myself in front of the mirror for several times. So that it makes me feel more confident and bold. I took a shower and had my breakfast. As I was dressing, I was thinking how I used to wear uniform to go to school in India. I packed my backpack the day before filled with books, pens, pencils, water bottle and lunch money. I headed to theShow MoreRelatedThe United States Of America1536 Words   |  7 PagesThe United States of America is well known throughout the world for tis democracy ant the freedoms of its citizens. Since declaring its Independence from Great Britain rule in 1776, the United States of America has undergone a continuous effort to maintain law and order. In order to create a strong federal government with a system of check and balances the Constitution was proposed and ratified. The Constitution of the United States became the Supreme law of th e land. (The Constitution) We theRead MoreThe United States Of America1317 Words   |  6 PagesThe united states of america has been in many world affairs since its creation. One of the earliest international events that can be attributed to having direct links with the Great Depression was the Manchurian Crisis of 1931. War had broken out between China and Japan, who had both suffered due to the counter measures and high tariffs set by America and Europe to combat the Great Depression. Japanese army officers in Manchuria manufactured an incident, took over the province and on their own createdRead MoreThe United States Of America995 Words   |  4 PagesThe United States of America has always been known as the home of â€Å"The American Dream†. This consists of the nice house with the family, the dog and the white picket fence. Lately, however, the country has been losing this dream. Lately the corruption of the United States of America has taken over this dream that led so many to want to make a home in the country. Politics has become a contest of money and power. Money has come to equal power, and it shown through all elections. The Federal ElectionRead MoreThe United States Of America1551 Words   |  7 Pages The United States of America: the place that praises the â€Å" American Dream† that countless people try following but never really succeed in accomplishing because of systemic racism. It’s easy to tell people to pull themselves up by their bootstraps, but what if they don’t even have bootstraps to begin with? The American Dream is a sugar coated lie. After hundreds of years of colonization, mass genocide, racism, white supremacy†¦ It is deceptive to tell minorities that they can be as successful asRead MoreThe United States Of America Essay1694 Words   |  7 PagesA crash in america may be coming a lot sooner than many people think. The United States of America is facing problems a lot of people are either un aware of or just dont think its a big deal. Most of america think that our economy and government is in alright financial shape, That may not be the case though. America is in bad shape and it seems to be going down hill. America is declining in world power as well and this is just another factor leading to a crash in the future. Other nations are growingRead MoreThe United States Of America1244 Words   |  5 PagesFrom Northern Pakistan to The United States of America, The Exchange Student Probably to everybody’s shock, nobody could have imagined how poorly executed the 45th’s President Executive Order shortly after it was established. Any person, who is from one of the seven designated Muslim countries in the Middle East, are not allowed the right of entry into the United States of America. People like Syrian Refuges are ban indefinitely until the 46th POTUS reverses that order, who are seeking nothing butRead MoreThe United States Of America1674 Words   |  7 PagesThe United States of America is the world largest single economy with a lot of trade activities with other nations. The country has traded with other nations for centuries hence it is an important economic partner (Jensen, Quinn Weymouth, 2015). The country normally has a lot of influence in the world trade since it serves almost all the nations worldwide. In fact, most of the trade policies that affect the whole world have been proposed by the United States of America. Moreover, the count ry isRead MoreThe United States Of America1354 Words   |  6 Pages The United States of America was sought out by immigrants as a place of freedom and refuge. Throughout America s short history, people from all over the world looked to America as a land of opportunity. Immigrants from Eastern European countries such as Poland, Lithuania, and Hungary poured into the United States in the mid 19th century. The large amount of immigration from Eastern European countries to the United States between 1919 and 1924 was due not only to the opportunities of work and freedomRead MoreThe United States Of America938 Words   |  4 PagesThe United States of America is one of, if not the most developed nation in the world as of 2014. America is well-known for its freedom and opportunity it offers, which is why many individuals sought out for it. But I am not going to write about America’s many achievements and prestigious comforts. I would like to address the current situation that h as been haunting America for quite some time now. In the last century, technology all around the world has undergone dramatic changes, whether it isRead MoreThe United States Of America1340 Words   |  6 PagesThe journey of how the United States of America became the United States of America is a very complex one. With America declaring separation from the Great English Empire, to the organization of becoming a free, sovereign nation and lastly, the migration and colonization of the now, western United States, including the great state of Nevada, has many components. The Declaration of Independence initiated the process of becoming a country of its own. This Document pushed the separation from England

Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel Essays - 1498 Words

Hydrogen as an Alternative Fuel What is Hydrogen? The simplest and lightest fuel is hydrogen gas (H2). Hydrogen is in a gaseous state at atmospheric pressure and ambient temperatures. Hydrogen is being explored for use in combustion engines and fuel cell electric vehicles. On a volumetric basis, the energy density of hydrogen is very low under ambient conditions. This presents greater transportation and storage hurdles than for liquid fuels. Storage systems being developed include compressed hydrogen, liquid hydrogen, and physical or chemical bonding between hydrogen and a storage material (for example, metal hydrides).The ability to create hydrogen from a variety of resources and its†¦show more content†¦Hydrogen burns in air at concentrations in the range of 4 to 75 percent by volume (methane burns at 5.3 to 15 percent concentrations by volume). The highest burning temperature of hydrogen is 2,318 degrees Celsius and is reached at 29-percent concentration by volume in air. Hydrogen Benefits Reduce Greenhouse Gas Emissions Greenhouse gases are thought to be responsible for changes in global climate. They trap excess heat from the suns infrared radiation that would otherwise escape into space, much like a greenhouse is used to trap heat. When we drive our cars, and light, heat, and cool our homes, we generate greenhouse gases. But if we used hydrogen in very high efficiency fuel cells for our transportation and to generate power, we could significantly reduce the GHG emissions - especially if the hydrogen is produced using renewable resources, nuclear power, or clean fossil technologies. Reduce Air Pollution The combustion of fossil fuels by electric power plants, vehicles, and other sources is responsible for most of the smog and harmful particulates in the air. Fuel cells powered by pure hydrogen emit no harmful pollutants. Fuel cells that use a reformer to convert fuels such as natural gas, methanol, or gasoline to hydrogen do emit small amounts of airShow MoreRelatedHydrogen as an Alternative Fuel Essay1003 Words   |  5 Pagesindependence. The United States imports most of its petroleum from foreign nations which could pose problems in the future. This is why Alternative fuels such as hydrogen should be extensively researched. The motor transportation industry should invest in extensive research and development in hydrogen fuel to help the fuel economy create stronger national energy security, make fuel more efficient and renewable, and more environment friendly. With the high rates of oil consumption in today’s society, manyRead MoreHydrogen And Its Effects On The Environment Essay1327 Words   |  6 Pagesother countries. The usage of fossil fuel is releasing a huge amount of carbon dioxide into the environment, and with the huge amount of consumption there will be a huge amount of carbon dioxide released into the environment. Also, most of the petroleum is located in countries that have political tension, which can affect the supply of petroleum. To avoid this problem, we might consider different kinds of alternative fuels that can be used for vehicles. Hydrogen is considered to be one of the mostRead MoreHydrogen as an Option for Fuel857 Words   |  3 Pagesescalating and fossil fuels becoming limited, scientists have been researching an alternative fuel source that will be more abundant and cost efficient. Issues with our current fuel source include the pollution that is emitted in our air and water sources and the fact that f ossil fuels are becoming scarce. One alternative to gasoline is the use of hydrogen as a fuel source. With hydrogen as a fuel source pollution will be in decline, it has become increasingly more abundant than fossil fuels through extractingRead MoreHydrogen As An Alternative Source Of Energy1190 Words   |  5 PagesKhaled AlGhunaim NASC 130 Professor Gartner November 16, 2015 Hydrogen As An Alternative Source Of Energy The contemporary industrial sector has been built on the capacity created by energy. The bulk of human activities from survival to economy rely on the use of energy. Indeed, widespread access to energy has a significant influence on the level of achievement a particular jurisdiction achieves (Johnstone, Mayo and Khare 572). Access to energy sources determines the quality and course of life undertakenRead MoreAlternative Fuels: Cars Can Exhale Water.1516 Words   |  6 Pages Today cars burn off gasoline (or diesel) that gives off harmful chemicals, but tomorrow vehicles may be running off of alternative resources. Scientist and engineers across the globe are furthering studies to make alternative fuels a thing of tomorrow. Some such alternative fuels include biodiesel, electricity, ethanol, hydrogen, propane, and natural gas. All of which have some promising pros. Not only are those chemicals emitted buy vehicles harmful to humans, but they are also hurting the environmentRead MoreHistory of Chemistry: Hydrogen as an Alternative Use of Energy757 Words   |  4 Pagesto be talking, about how the element hydrogen when chemically broken down can produce enough power to run things like, cars, planes, helicopter, etc†¦ which is chemistry in technology. Right now most everyone is very heavily dependent on the use of fossil fuels and the search for alternative fuel sources are starting to pick up. One of the leading sources of fuel being tested is the use of hydrogen as an alternative fuel. One of the disadvantages is that hydrogen is only found in a handful of locationsRead MoreThe Power of Water Essay1599 Words   |  7 Pagesand the general rise of cost of fossil fuels alternatives have been explored. One of these is hydrogen power in the form of the hydrogen fuel cell. This source of power is unique because the only direct byproduct of it is water. With hydrogen power there are several ideas that need to be understood to determine if hydrogen power can significantly reduce or replace fossil fuels in homes and cars. First, how hydrogen is able to produce power as well as what a fuel cell is and how it works. Second, thereRead MoreUsing Alternative Fuels For Cars1481 Words   |  6 Pagestypes of alternate fuels for cars at our disposal, such as Ethanol, Natural Gas, Electricity, and Hydrogen Fuels. We can use these fuels instead of normal gasoline fuels that pollute our air and contribute to destroying our environment. Many of these alternative fuels may be less convenient to use, because they are less accessible. However, if people decide to use these fuels then they can make our world a green friendly world. There this a ton of upside to using alternative fuels, according to LarryRead MoreHydrogen: Is it worth it? Essay643 Words   |  3 PagesHydrogen, number one on the Periodic Table of elements, and the most common elemen t on our planet Earth. It may come as a surprise to many, or maybe not at all, that hydrogen could be used as a form of fuel for things such as trucks and cars. It is no new news that Hydrogen can be used as a fuel, since it has been on rockets as they are pushed out of orbit. Now all we have to do is figure out a way to be able to use it in our everyday lives. The good thing about Hydrogen is that it can be usedRead MoreOil Dependency Essay910 Words   |  4 Pagessalary in order for the American consumer to afford the alternative. This idea would be very tough to accomplish. My proposal is for politicians, who have the necessary power, to begin a national campaign on helping to increase research funds for alternative fuel sources. The national increase in research funds could greatly benefit this countries oil dependency. There are several companies that are in the process of developing alternative

Improving Communication for People with Learning Disabilitie Free Essays

string(321) " to consider the needs of people with learning disabilities and that overcoming this source of inequality was the most important issue for the NHS to address for this patient BOX 2 Terminology and facts related to learning disabilities ‘Mental handicap’ was a term used to describe people with learning disabilities\." learning zone CONTINUING PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT Page 58 Improving communication for people with learning disabilities Page 66 Learning disabilities multiple choice questionnaire Page 67 Read Annette Martyn’s practice profile on type 2 diabetes Page 68 Guidelines on how to write a practice profile Improving communication for people with learning disabilities NS336 Godsell M, Scarborough K (2006) Improving communication for people with learning disabilities. Nursing Standard. 20, 30, 58-65. We will write a custom essay sample on Improving Communication for People with Learning Disabilitie or any similar topic only for you Order Now Date of acceptance: February 6 2006. Summary Patients with learning disabilities have higher healthcare risks than the general population. Similar essay: Collate Information About an Individual’s Communication and the Support Provided Health professionals need to develop skills that enable them to communicate effectively with this patient group. Identifying barriers to communication is the first step to reducing or removing them. Suggested strategies to improve healthcare access for patients with learning disabilities include: developing individualised health action plans, simplifying communication styles and providing accessible facilities and tailored resources. learning activities you should be able to: Understand the impact of communication on interaction between healthcare providers and patients with learning disabilities. Describe the relationship between communication and the health inequalities experienced by people with learning disabilities. Identify strategies to improve communication between health providers and patients with learning disabilities. Authors Matthew Godsell and Kim Scarborough are senior lecturers, Faculty of Health and Social Care, University of the West of England, Bristol. Email: Matthew. Godsell@uwe. ac. uk Introduction Learning disability is not a diagnosis but a term used to describe people with a wide range of strengths and needs. Eighty per cent of children and 60 per cent of adults with learning disabilities live with their families (Gravestock and Bouras 1997), and many people with learning disabilities exceed the expectations of families and professionals in their capacity to learn new skills and develop their talents (NHS Executive 1999). The term ‘learning disability’ says little about an individual’s strengths and needs but it does incorporate three elements that appear in most definitions (Box 1). Emerson et al (2001) state that the number of people with learning disabilities in the UK has not been determined. They estimate that in the UK there could be as many as 350,000 people with severe learning disabilities (intelligence quotient (IQ) 50). This means that 2 per cent of patients are likely to have a learning disability (NHS Executive 1999). The ways in which people with learning disabilities are described have changed. Terminology and related facts are listed in Box 2. NURSING STANDARD Keywords Communication; Learning disabilities nursing: attitudes These keywords are based on the subject headings from the British Nursing Index. This article has been subject to double-blind review. For related articles and author guidelines visit our online archive at www. nursing-standard. co. uk and search using the keywords. Aims and intended learning outcomes The aim of this article is to explore the impact of communication on health care for people with learning disabilities. The article discusses how cognition and communication influence interactions between healthcare providers and patients. It also examines how poor communication can contribute to health inequalities that separate people with learning disabilities from the rest of the population. The article explores communication strategies that can overcome or reduce barriers to effective health care. After reading this article and completing the 58 april 5 :: vol 20 no 30 :: 2006 Time out 1 Based on a figure of 2 per cent of patients having learning disabilities, it is likely that 40 per 2,000 patients registered with GP services are likely to have learning disabilities. How many patients with learning disabilities are you aware of in your practice area? List some of the reasons that might prevent people with learning disabilities from accessing local health services. Health inequalities Although people with learning disabilities are living longer, the gap that separates the health status of people with learning disabilities and the general population has increased. Cohen (2001) asserted that gross inequalities in health are politically, socially and economically unacceptable. An investigation into health inequalities by the Disability Rights Commission (Nocon 2004) found that people with learning disabilities have: An increased risk of early death compared with the rest of the population; mortality rates are particularly high for those with more severe impairments. A greater variety of healthcare needs. Many needs that are not met. High rates of unrecognised or poorly managed medical conditions including: hypertension, obesity, heart disease, abdominal pain, respiratory disease, cancer, gastrointestinal disorders, diabetes, chronic urinary tract infections, oral disease, musculoskeletal conditions, osteoporosis, thyroid disease, and visual and hearing impairments. A briefing paper produced by the NHS Service Delivery and Organisation (SDO) Research and Development Programme (NHS SDO 2004) identified barriers to appropriate and timely BOX 1 Definition of a learning disability A person with learning disabilities has: Significant reduction in the ability to understand new or complex information. Reduced ability to cope independently. Impairment starting in childhood that will have a lasting effect on development. (DH 2001) access to health care within and outside services. Many people with learning disabilities find that identifying their healthcare needs is a major challenge. Proactive strategies are required to encourage people to access the full range of services that are available. Some people with learning disabilities have said that negative and unhelpful attitudes from healthcare workers have prevented them from seeking medical help (Bristol and District People First 2003). Support and encouragement are required by carers, allies and friends before people with these concerns are ready to engage with services again. People are more likely to trust service providers when they are convinced that services and practitioners have responded to their needs by improving communication skills and producing information in an accessible format. People with learning disabilities have the same right to access mainstream services as the rest of the population (Department of Health (DH) 2001). However, mainstream services have been slow to develop the capacity and skills to meet their needs. In the document Valuing People (DH 2001) it was acknowledged that the wider NHS had failed to consider the needs of people with learning disabilities and that overcoming this source of inequality was the most important issue for the NHS to address for this patient BOX 2 Terminology and facts related to learning disabilities ‘Mental handicap’ was a term used to describe people with learning disabilities. You read "Improving Communication for People with Learning Disabilitie" in category "Essay examples" It is no longer used in the UK. ‘Mental retardation’ is a term used internationally, however, it is not an accepted term in the UK and some may find this term offensive. Learning difficulty’ is the term used in education to define individuals who have specific learning needs, for example, dyslexia. Some people who are identified as having learning difficulty by education services may also be considered to have a learning disability, but this is not nece ssarily the case. ‘Mild’, ‘moderate’, ‘severe’ and ‘profound’ are terms to describe different degrees of disability (Figure 1). A person with mild learning disabilities might communicate effectively, learn, live and work with little support. However, a person with profound learning disabilities will require support with activities of daily living, for example, communication, dressing, feeding, washing and mobility. A diagnosis of ‘mental illness’ is not the same as having a learning disability, but people with learning disabilities may have mental health issues as well. Not everyone with learning disabilities requires a social worker or a community nurse. People with learning disabilities may have multiple diagnoses resulting in complex health needs. People with the most profound physical or sensory impairments do not always have the most profound cognitive impairments. NURSING STANDARD april 5 :: vol 20 no 30 :: 2006 59 learning zone nursing attitudes group. The briefing paper produced by the NHS SDO (2004) provided key action points for removing barriers and improving access to health care, which included: Using specialist learning disability teams to aid adaptation of mainstream services to meet the needs of patients with learning disabilities. Developing strategies for health education and health checks for people with learning disabilities that promote timely access to health care. Families and paid carers have an important role in helping people with learning disabilities to access health care. Some people will need assistance to recognise mental health problems and to identify gradual changes in health. Time out 2 Make a list of the ways that you communicate with patients about their health, for example, through appointments and telephone calls. Take three examples from your list and consider reasons why communication with a person with learning disabilities might be difficult. Give an example of effective communication between a practitioner and a person with learning disabilities. Policies should address the use of technology to support communication, and the development and dissemination of accessible information. Jones (2003) suggests that managers and commissioners of services should liaise with health, social care and education agencies to ensure consistency in communication policies throughout the lives of people with learning disabilities. Communication can be broadly defined as the exchange of information between a sender and a receiver (Figure 2). Where a person has learning disabilities they may be communicating with an intention to attract a communication partner and commence a two-way dialogue. However, for some people with profound learning disabilities sending a message might be a response to their body and feelings. Their level of cognition might be such that they are unaware of possible communication partners and of how to take the communication further. This is called pre-intentional communication, in which the individual says or does things without intending to affect those around them. It is important to remember that everyone communicates and that the role of communicator and communication partner swaps from one person to the other so that a conversation can develop. The challenge for health professionals is to develop skills that enable them to interpret the messages they receive and make the messages they send understandable. Communication is not only about verbal communication; it is also about nonverbal communication, for example, the use of body language, words and pictures. Communication Recommendations have been made to improve communication and access to health services for people with learning disabilities. Jones (2003) states that services supporting people from birth to older age should develop communication policies. FIGURE 1 Estimated percentage of people with learning disabilities according to level of severity Mild Moderate 12% Severe Profound 80% 7% 1% Augmentative and alternative communication systems Systems of communication, such as sign language, symbols and eye pointing, are known as augmentative and alternative communication systems (AACs). AACs can be used to enhance or replace customary pathways, such as speech or writing. The use of photographs of everyday objects, picture boards, line drawing and real objects are good ways to enhance communication with people with learning disabilities (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASHA) 2005). You do not need to attend specialist training to be able to use AACs such as these. More formal AACs, such as Makaton (a form of sign language for people who have learning disabilities that uses keywords to enhance understanding), require preparation but learning a basic vocabulary does not require extensive training. Cognition and communication (Winterhalder 1997) Understanding complex information People with learning disabilities have a reduced ability to NURSING STANDARD 60 april 5 :: vol 20 no 30 :: 2006 understand new or complex information (DH 2001), and those who experience difficulties when processing information may find it hard to learn new skills. Intelligence can be quantified as a figure related to an individual’s IQ. However, it might be more useful to think about intelligence in relation to cognitive processes. Smith and Mackie (2000) describe cognitive processes as: ‘†¦the way in which our memories, perceptions, thoughts, emotions and motives guide our understanding of the world and our actions. ’ Intelligence exerts a powerful influence over the ability to process information, the capacity to learn new skills and to adapt knowledge to different situations. Intelligence is an attribute that can guide our understanding of the world, but it is not fixed or static. Teaching and learning strategies can be used to stimulate cognitive processes so that people can approach information, or potentially confusing situations, with more confidence. Similarly, complicated tasks and information can be broken down into small, simple steps so that people can approach them in stages. Attempting to understand another person’s cognitive processes can help practitioners to develop a more empathetic and person-centred approach to care, and can provide an incentive to develop the teaching and learning strategies that are best suited to the individual needs of patients. Coping independently People with learning disabilities may have a reduced ability to cope independently (DH 2001). Independence is defined according to levels of social functioning. Assessment of a patient’s strengths and needs in social functioning is a fundamental stage in developing planned care that is familiar to practitioners from all branches of nursing. Making an accurate assessment of social functioning provides valuable information about the range of activities that a person can undertake on his or her own as well as those activities where a person requires support. Some people with learning disabilities may require assistance with tasks such as washing and dressing, and many need help to have their mode of communication understood. Learning disability and development Learning disability starts before adulthood, affects people of all ages and has a lasting effect on development (DH 2001). A majority of younger people with learning disabilities are living in the community with their parents or carers. Older people with learning disabilities also live in the community but they may have periods of institutional care. Some people will have frequent contact with health services and others have irregular contact. People with learning disabilities are not a homogeneous group. Their perceptions of nurses, NURSING STANDARD FIGURE 2 A model for communication Person communicating: we take turns in this role of sender of information. Depending on the person’s cognitive ability, this may be intentional or pre-intentional communication Communication barriers: can be present in the environment as well as being caused by the communicator and communication partner Communication partner: we take turns in this role of the person who receives the information sent, makes sense of it and responds appropriately doctors, health centres, clinics and hospitals will have been shaped by their formative experiences with staff and services. Providing encouragement for people with learning disabilities to attend health checks and to make use of healthcare services can involve changing their perceptions of health professionals. Some people with learning disabilities have not received the treatment they need because they are reluctant to engage with services where they have had bad experiences in the past. To encourage people with learning disabilities to make effective use of healthcare services throughout their lives, practitioners need to use their communication skills to initiate and maintain positive relationships. Time out 3 Think about the last time you communicated with a person with learning disabilities, or someone who has communication difficulties. Refer to the list you made in Time out 2 about the communication systems you use in your workplace. What are the main barriers to communicating about health with a person who has learning disabilities? How do you remove or reduce barriers to communication? Which environmental factors impede communication? Identify any barriers that you had not previously considered. april 5 :: vol 20 no 30 :: 2006 61 learning zone nursing attitudes Barriers to communication There are barriers to communication which can be identified in relation to the person with learning disabilities, the health professional and the environment (Box 3). When barriers have been identified, health professionals can start to think about ways of reducing or removing them. Health professionals exchange information by using terminology that reflects their specialised knowledge. Patients and other people who are not involved in the day-to-day delivery of health care BOX 3 Barriers to communication The person with learning disabilities may: Have limited understanding. Have limited vocabulary or difficulty speaking. Have sensory impairments that limit ability to hear requests or instructions. Have poor understanding of health and healthy living. Be scared of people in uniforms. Be stressed because of illness. Not like new places. Have difficulty waiting and may not understand the concept of time or queuing. Have limited literacy and numeracy skills to read health advice and information, for example, instructions, letters, dosages. Expect contact with nurses to be unpleasant because of previous experiences. The nurse may: Be rushed because of heavy workload. Have biases and assumptions about people with learning disabilities. Have poor listening and attending skills. Be unable to understand augmentative and alternative communication systems. Have limited knowledge of the individual. Have insufficient time to develop a good relationship with the individual or carer. Not use visual aids to support understanding. Use technical jargon and/or long words. Provide written information without thinking of the patient’s ability to read it. Provide information about the next appointment in a way the patient will not understand or remember. The environment may: Be crowded. Busy. Uncomfortable. Have strange smells and noises. Bring back bad memories. Have limited physical access, for example, no hoists. Include unhelpful people. Have poor signage, relying on literacy skills and good sensory abilities. Have no area to sit quietly with limited sensory stimulation while waiting. Be filled with machines and instruments that a person with learning disabilities may not understand. may find it difficult to comprehend the terms and ideas they encounter in healthcare settings. They can find it hard to follow advice or instructions. This could result in patients making inappropriate decisions or exposing themselves to unnecessary risks. For example, patients with learning disabilities who take their own medication may be at risk of overdosing or taking an ineffectual dose, particularly if the route and dosage of a newly prescribed medicine has not been explained clearly and/or recorded in an accessible format. Time out 4 Consider the list of potential barriers to communication and categorise them according to: Barriers that have been addressed for patients with learning disabilities using the services you work in. Barriers that can be remedied quickly. Barriers that need planning to be reduced or removed. Barriers that require financial investment to be reduced or overcome. Discuss this list with your colleagues. Identify strategies for removing barriers and improving communication. Good practice in communication In South Warwickshire, health passports have been developed for people with learning disabilities (Leamington Spa Today 2005). These provide detailed information about an individual’s health, strengths and needs so that practitioners can provide patient-centred care. They are used to improve communication across a range of healthcare providers. Having an alert system incorporated into patient notes which provides individual communication needs could be beneficial, especially where staff do not know individual patients. Health practitioners may use and be involved in developing health action plans. These are plans specific to individuals and are developed to meet their access needs. Health action plans are a way of overcoming some of the barriers to high quality health care (DH 2001). Plans are produced by a group of people including the patient. They encourage the development of a shared understanding about an individual’s health needs. Where training in health action planning has been provided for GP surgeries, improvements have been shown in the health of patients with learning disabilities (Smith et al 2004). There are benefits to having a lead person to deal with learning disability issues. In primary healthcare services, a lead person takes an interest in learning disability issues, collates information, NURSING STANDARD 62 april 5 :: vol 20 no 30 :: 2006 ives support and advice to health staff and develops links with specialist services for people with learning disabilities and other agencies (NHS Executive 1999). Time out 5 Does your organisation have a lead person who is involved in initiatives such as joint communication policies and the development and sharing of accessible health information? If yes, find out how he or she is supporting your tea m to develop skills in communicating with people who have learning disabilities. If no, how might developing this role benefit your team and improve access to health care for patients with learning disabilities? To improve communication with people with learning disabilities, more time should be allocated to appointments so that there is more time for them to express themselves and understand any information they have received (DH 1999). This is particularly the case if AACs are being used. Reception staff are often aware of people who have difficulties using services. Supporting these key staff to develop effective communication skills and flexibility can improve access to health services (NHS Executive 1999). For example, if staff in reception are aware that someone finds it difficult to wait in a queue, they may offer that person the first appointment. Several resources have been developed by trusts to improve communication. Some examples of these include: Hambleton and Richmondshire Primary Care Trust (PCT), in partnership with Mencap, has developed an accessible ‘Choose and Book’ guide for hospital appointments that uses a combination of pictures and words to explain how patients can make choices about hospitals and appointments. Bristol South West PCT, as part of its ‘Expert Patient Programme’, has developed plans that help prepare people with learning disabilities for a visit to the doctor. The Health Facilitation Team at Gloucestershire Partnership NHS Trust (2004) has produced a ‘traffic light assessment’ that conveys information about individuals on admission to hospital. This ensures that important information is clearly communicated to health professionals. Camden PCT (2005) has used this work to develop an online resource. Although people may appear to have limited communication skills, they should not be ignored. These patients should be addressed directly and NURSING STANDARD the information they receive should be provided in a simple way without being patronising. Effective communication often depends on how the information is delivered. Practitioners may have to talk to carers, but they should not forget to address the person with learning disabilities. Practitioners should examine their beliefs about people with learning disabilities and avoid making assumptions about an individual’s strengths and needs. This will help to make health assessments more accurate (DH 1999). It is useful to invite a speaker with learning disabilities to talk to healthcare staff about living with a learning disability and his or her experiences of accessing health services. Time out 6 What beliefs and values do you think society holds about people with learning disabilities? Some examples of negative beliefs and values are that people with learning disabilities: Have a poor quality of life. Have higher pain thresholds. Are dangerous and promiscuous. Will not understand anything. Should not get married or have children. Cannot care for their children. Need institutional care. Cannot work. Are like children not adults. What are your feelings about these statements? How might the presence of any or all of these beliefs influence the care given to a person with learning disabilities? People with learning disabilities can have additional physical or sensory impairments that should be considered. They are also more likely to have more mental health needs than the general population (DH 2001). Where a patient has additional impairments or health issues these need to be considered during communication. The healthcare environment should be adapted to accommodate people with physical or sensory impairments. Time out 7 In your work place: Do you have a private area to talk to a person who has a large wheelchair? Do you have rooms where glare is controlled and the environment is suitable for people with limited vision? Do you consider the needs of interpreters/ carers and ensure they fully understand information before they pass it on? april 5 :: vol 20 no 30 :: 2006 63 learning zone nursing attitudes Accessible information Accessible information comes in many forms, such as videos, CDs, DVDs and audiotapes. Pamphlets can be produced with accessible information about the services offered. Written information needs to be in plain language, with short sentences and one subject per sentence. Photographs, drawings, symbols and other visual information can be used to support written information. It is important to keep pages uncluttered on plain backgrounds so that text does not detract from graphics. Letters should be large, 16-18 point type size, and fonts that do not have serifs, such as Arial and Comic Sans, should be used. Graphic text, underlining and italics should be kept to a minimum because they can impede readability. Many trusts are now producing resources to enhance accessibility. Some of these include: The United Bristol Healthcare NHS Trust has produced a leaflet called ‘You are coming to the Bristol Royal Infirmary about your heart’, TABLE 1 Using terminology that is easy to understand Health issue Common words that are used Epilepsy Investigations EEG (electroencephalogram) Strategies or words that improve understanding Find out more about This word would have to be used, but a photograph of someone having an EEG may help understanding Medicine tablets to help control your epilepsy Having two or more seizures straight after each other or whatever describes status for the individual Taking your medication as we have agreed Things that might make you have a seizure Not being able to have a poo for three days Things you feel in your head and body that make you think you will have a seizure Having a fit or turn, whichever word the person uses which uses pictures and words to introduce some of the staff and explain what happens when patients are ad mitted to the cardiology department. The Learning Disability Partnership Board in Surrey has developed ‘The Hospital Communication Book’ that combines words, pictures, signs and symbols. Trafford North and South PCTs have produced a toolkit for people with learning disabilities called ‘Cancer and You’ (Provan 2004). Contact your local Community Learning Disability Team or People First organisation for information about local resources. Simplifying conversation When talking to people with learning disabilities, use approaches similar to those used for written text. Plain language, the use of keywords, short sentences and one subject per sentence should be used. Give people time to process what is being said and to formulate a reply. Use openended questions to assess a person’s understanding and rephrase the question if necessary, as repeating the same question rarely improves understanding. When information is presented during a consultation it is important to check that the person with learning disabilities has understood it. If there is insufficient time during the initial consultation, it may be necessary to make a further appointment to check what the person has understood and retained. For an individual who processes information slowly this might be essential to ensure an accurate assessment and the effective implementation of a treatment plan. Examples of terms that are easier to understand are presented in Table 1. Such terms are only beneficial if the person understands them so, for example, ‘constipation’ could be described as ‘not being able to have a poo’, but the health practitioner needs to know whether the person uses this term to describe defecation. Anti-epileptic drugs Status epilepticus Drug compliance Triggers Constipation Aura Time out 8 Think of four common illnesses that are likely to make a person visit your service. Write these in the first column of a table (see Table 1). Identify the language you use when discussing these illnesses and record these words or phrases in column two. These might be medical terms, health terms or long words. Now spend some time identifying words that are easier to understand and record them in the third column. NURSING STANDARD Seizure 64 april 5 :: vol 20 no 30 :: 2006 Conclusion People with learning disabilities may have communication difficulties that have restricted their access to health care and prevented them from receiving the information required to maintain their health. In addition to learning disability, they are more likely to have complex healthcare needs leading to multiple diagnoses. Steps towards better health for people with learning disabilities can be made by providing encouragement and support to attend regular health screening and reviews, and by developing a range of strategies to improve communication between practitioners and individuals with learning disabilities NS RECOMMENDED RESOURCES British Institute of Learning Disabilities (2001) Factsheet No. 005 Communication. www. bild. org. uk/pdf/factsheets/communication. pdf (Last accessed: March 10 2006. British Institute of Learning Disabilities (2005) Your Good Health (a set of 12 illustrated booklets). www. bild. org. uk/publications/your_very_good_health_details. htm (Last accessed: March 10 2006. ) Communication Matters (updates 2005) What is AAC? www. communicationmatters. org. uk (Last accessed: March 10 2006. ) Communication Matters (updated 2005) How to be a good listener. www. communicationmatters. org. uk (Last accessed: March 10 2006. ) Department of Health. www. dh. gov. uk (Last accessed: March 10 2006. ) Foundation for People with Learning Disabilities (2004) Communication and people with learning disabilities. www. learningdisabilities. org. uk/page. cfm? agecode=ISSICMMT (Last accessed: March 10 2006. ) Foundation for People with Learning Disabilities (2005) Patients with learning disabilities in South Warwickshire have been given a new type of passport to help with their medical appointments. www. learningdisabilities. org. uk/profilenews. cfm? pagecode=ISSICOLNare acode=ld_communication_newsid=7231 (Last accessed: March 10 2006. ) MENCAP (2003) You and your health: a basic guide to being healthy. www. mencap. org. uk/download/you_and_your_health. pdf (Last accessed: March 10 2006. ) Plymouth Hospitals NHS Trust (2005) Living with cancer. www. learningdisabilitycancer. nhs. uk/ (Last accessed: March 10 2006. ) Time out 9 Complete a SWOT analysis (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) of your skills and knowledge when communicating with and supporting access to health care for people with learning disabilities. Time out 10 Now that you have completed this article, you might like to consider writing a practice profile. Guidelines are on page 68. References American Speech-LanguageHearing Association (2005) Introduction to Augmentative and Alternative Communication. www. asha. org/public/ speech/disorders/acc_primer. htm (Last accessed: March 9 2006. ) Bristol and District People First (2003) We are People First. (Film) People First, Bristol. Camden PCT (2005) What You Need to Know About Me in Hospital. www. camden. gov. k/ (Last accessed: March 17 2006. ) Cohen J (2001) Countries’ health performance. The Lancet. 358, 9285, 929. Department of Health (1999) Facing the Facts: Services for People with Learning Disabilities: A Policy Impact Study of Social Care and Health Services. The St ationery Office, London. Department of Health (2001) Valuing People: A New Strategy for Learning Disability for the 21st Century. The Stationery Office, London. Emerson E, Hatton C, Felce D, Murphy G (2001) Learning Disabilities: The Fundamental Facts. Foundation for People with Learning Disabilities, London. Gloucestershire Partnership NHS Trust (2004) Traffic light assessment. Unpublished document. Gloucestershire Partnership NHS Trust, Gloucester. Gravestock S, Bouras N (1997) Emotional disorders. In Holt G, Bouras N (Eds) Mental Health in Learning Disabilities: A Training Pack for Staff Working with People who have a Dual Diagnosis of Mental Health Needs and Learning Disabilities. Second edition. Pavilion Publishing, Brighton, 17-26. Jones J (2003) The Communication Gap. www. learningdisabilities. org. uk /page. cfm? pagecode= FBFMCHTP04 (Last accessed: March 10 2006. ) Leamington Spa Today (2005) Patients with learning disabilities in South Warwickshire have been given a new type of passport to help with their medical appointments. Leamington Spa Today. January 19, 2005. NHS Executive (1999) Once a Day One or More People with Learning Disabilities are Likely to be in Contact with Your Primary Healthcare Team. How Can You Help Them? Department of Health, Leeds. NHS Service Delivery and Organisation (SDO) Research and Development Programme (2004) Access to Health Care for People with Learning Disabilities. Briefing paper. NHS SDO, London. Nocon A (2004) Background Evidence for the DRC’s Formal Investigation into Health Inequalities Experienced by People with Learning Disabilities or Mental Health Problems. Disability Rights Commission, Stratford upon Avon. Provan K (2004) Cancer and You: Toolkit for Working with People with Learning Disabilities. www. cancerandyou. info/docs/ FullToolkitNov04. pdf (Last accessed: March 9 2006. Smith ER, Mackie DM (2000) Social Psychology. Second edition. Psychology Press, Hove. Smith C, Giraud-Saunders A, McIntosh B (2004) Healthy Lives: Health Action Planning in a Person Centred Way; Including Health in Person Centred Planning. www. valuingpeople. gov. uk/ HealthHealthyLives. htm (Last accessed March 10 2006. ) Winterhalder R (1997) An overview of learning disabilities. In Holt G, Bouras N (Eds) Mental Health in Learning Disabilities: A Training Pack for Staff Working with People who have a Dual Diagnosis of Mental Health Needs and Learning Disabilities. Second edition. Pavilion Publishing, Brighton, 1-6. NURSING STANDARD april 5 :: vol 20 no 30 :: 2006 65 How to cite Improving Communication for People with Learning Disabilitie, Essay examples

Linguistics and Children free essay sample

This assignment will firstly explain the meaning of the following terms, communicative competence and metalinguistic awareness. Observations have shown that children do imitate older peers and adults when speaking as well as signs of creativity from an early age when developing language. Then the second section will evaluate the roles of creativity and imitation in regards to learning spoken English. This assignment will focus on the spoken English of young children. Part 1 Communicative competence Is a term that refers to the way in which a language user communicates efficiently and successfully depends upon their communicative competence. Linguist Noam Chomsky depicted a variation within the term ‘linguistic’ which he divided into to competence and performance. The term linguistic performance is associated with incorrectly and/or repeated ungrammatical delivered actual utterances of language in use. Linguistic competence refers to the knowledge of the language system which will enable the speaker to distinguish the utterances that are grammatical in the language from those that are not. We will write a custom essay sample on Linguistics and Children or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Chomsky, 1965 cited in Book3, pg 48) However linguist Hymes believed speakers need to attain distinctive skills in performance such as what is the socially appropriate turn of phrase to accomplish the desired effect as well as knowing when to speak. With regards to children as well as learning the construction and sounds of particular languages they are actually learning the discourse procedures of their communities. The term also incorporates word meaning, grammar and pronunciations well as applying language aptly, verbally, written and non- verbal cues such as body language. Book3, pg 201) Metalinguistic awareness Is a term used to define an individual’s ability to reflect on the use of language in with regards to clarifying the transfer of linguistic skills and knowledge across languages. When a language user’s metalinguistic awareness develops they start to create new and refined use of metaphors such as the simile â€Å"life is like a box of chocolates, you never know what you’re going to get† they also begin to realise that statements can have an implied meaning as well as a factual meaning. They may even start to identify sarcasm along with contrariness which connects with an individual’s capability of telling and /or understanding jokes, manipulating language (Kerper, 2009) Part 2 Children can acquire language as a result of imitation however it isn’t the initial method into language acquisition due to children demonstrating creative practice of language. (Book 3, pg 27) Infants produce a variety of sounds during the initial year of their life in addition to experimenting with vocal play. Book 3, pg 8) The rate of development differs between each child, for example it is rare for a child to skip the babbling stage, which usually occurs at the average age of 11months, and another factor that assists speech development is physiological maturation. (Book 3, pg9) Benedict, 1979 cited in Book 3, pg19 researched development of vocabulary of a small group of children (8) during the course of six months. The findings demonstrated children’s ability to unde rstand and create words between the ages of 10 months and on average 1 year 9 months. By the time the child is 11 months and 15 days they are usually attain a comprehension vocabulary of twenty words. The process of attaining words in production takes longer than it does in comprehension, comprehension can usually occurs 4 months before production. With regards to ‘imitation’ the role of the caregiver (a term used for those individuals who spend the most time interacting with and looking after the child. ) (Book 3, pg 11) much research has been done in this area whereby the emphasis is on a pair in this case it involves the child and their main caregiver, this is also known as a term called a dyad. The findings from this research revealed that the person the child has most direct contact with impart the language surroundings that the child will model. Other linguistic modelling that adults provide is through caregiving schedules, for instances bathing and feeding, these routines provide occasions for conventional interactions concerning language. ‘Peek a boo’ A customary game that is usually played between infant and caregiver and generally in Western cultures. Book 3, pg14) As a rule the adult attempts to grasp the infant’s interest the concealing their eyes behind a hand or an object after which a type of discourse occurs, for example the adult might say ‘Are you ready? ‘Then the infant’s vocalisations or actions are indicated as a response. This sequence of question –and – reply is continued until the apprehension develops at this point the adult takes their hand away or removes the object and says ‘Boo! ’ (Bo ok 3, pg 15) Trevarthen and Aitken , 2001 cited in Book 3, pg 15 believed this kind of game could be termed ‘protoconversations’, because it is similar to a conversation. It requires turn – taking, each person’s turn relies on the previous is input of the partner, therefore it is contingent, the partners understand the sequence disclose the same intention. Therefore this kind of interaction initiates ceremonial features of conversations before young children are able to speak but prompt passage to language. A universal observation made regarding the type of dialogue directed to children by adults is that the dialogue differs to that addressed to other adults. Consequently caregivers amend their dialogue for instance delivery slowed down, intonation is amplified and an elevated pitch may be used. Older children also adapt their dialogue for younger children comparable to adults, this is also evident that older children are emulating adults and implementing this technique to young children. (Book 3, pg15) this dialogue style is referred to as child directed speech (CDS). Clifton Pye, 1986 cited in Book 3, pg 16 observed a community in Central America called Quiche, they spoken one of the native Mayan languages. The results showed a difference in the way in which Quiche caregivers and Western caregivers adapt their dialogue for young children. Regardless of this cultural difference in caregiver – child interaction, the children in the Quiche community were able to speak fluently in their native language. Shirley Brice Heath’s research 1983 cited in Book 3, pg 16 of black working-class English speaking community discovered that adults in this community didn’t usually use ‘baby talk’ when interacting with young children. The ways in which children’s grammar develop could also be due to imitation as well. Descriptive grammar is a term referring to how children organise and structure speech, it doesn’t link to the correct ‘English’ people should use. Investigations into children’s grammar showed that a constant procedure is involved in the attainment of grammar. Crystal, 1995, cited in Book 3, pg 25 acknowledged seven stages ranging from formative years to adolescent. In the early stages of grammatical development children apply brief utterances of two to three words without any grammatical markers; children are usually aged between 18 months to 2 years. In the next stage of usually 3 years children start to add markers to words such as tense ( I played), plural (one cat, two cats). The second stage within Crystal’s paradigm is a term called telegraphic speech during this stage, children do not use grammatical markers instead they use verbs, temporal adverbs, adjectives and nouns. The crucial information is apparent because the details and trimmings are removed; this telegraphic quality is stated in children’s imitation of adult’s speech. Also during the second stage it has been noted that children’s speech will likely to be: a more water; baby drink; allgone sticky. However in this instance it is unlikely that children will have heard adults make these types of utterances which means they can be depicted as unique utterances, and since the meaning will be comprehensible, this utterance can also be viewed as a success. This all goes to illustrate that even at the first stages of language development children are showcasing their creativity. Most adults especially parents have heard their child/ran emulate them using adult expression and even intonation. With regards to creativity and language development, numerous researches from the theories L. S. Vygotsky (1967) and Jean Piaget (1962) cited in Gillen, 2009 has found that there is a substantial link between play and language learning. Play encourages children’s imaginative thought process through playing with objects that will then eventually lead to a better understanding of their environment. As the child’s ability to create more meaningful representations develop so does the more complex their play becomes. Bloom, 1993, p. 16 cited in Gillen, 2009, p 56. Observed that a ‘spurt’ in first words was usually due to development in play behaviours. From observations children unconsciously obtain rules about real-life behaviour, and implement what they have observed into their play with a mixture of their own imagination. When children are involved in pretence games with other children it is called sociodramatic play, within this type of play it is suggested that children practice different registers of talk that they observe to fit in with that role. To conclude it seems as though the interactions typically viewed of caregivers and infants are not essential and general characteristic initial language experience. There was a variance in comprehension and creation of vocabulary. Evidence derived from research of language acquisition is usually carried out from a limited collection of cultural and social backgrounds so the findings of primitive grammatical development in English are from language users of the normal criterion of the language.